The dangerous quantity of residual dioxin in the earth thwarts the normal growth of crops and trees, while continuing to poison the food chain. Chapter 4 distinguishes Agent Orange from dioxin. The chemicals were deployed as part of Operation Ranch Hand, a military operation that lasted from 1962 to 1971. More than 40 years on, the impact on their health has been staggering. Because of its high dioxin content, Agent Orange is a carcinogen, meaning that it can cause cancer in those who are exposed. The herbicide and defoliant exposed Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops who previously sheltered under the . This lady has done extensive research on and about the effects of 2-B. Using a variety of defoliants, the U.S. military also intentionally targeted cultivated land, destroying crops and disrupting rice production and distribution by the largely communist National Liberation Front, a party devoted to reunification of North and South Vietnam. More than 10 years of U.S. chemical warfare in Vietnam exposed an estimated 2.1 to 4.8 million Vietnamese people to Agent Orange. The defoliant, sprayed from low-flying aircraft, consisted of approximately equal amounts of the unpurified butyl esters of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Chemicals could be associated with serious health issues such as muscular dysfunction, inflammation, birth defects, nervous system disorders and even the development of various cancers. Considering how toxic dioxin is, it is truly shocking that after extremely minimal experimentation, Agent Orange and other herbicides were shipped to Vietnam in 1961 to aid in anti guerilla efforts. In Vietnam, nearly 4.8 million people have been exposed, causing 400,000 deaths; the associated illnesses include cancers, birth defects, skin disorders, auto-immune diseases, liver disorders, psychosocial effects, neurological defects and gastrointestinal diseases. Agent Orange, its toxic defoliant cousin, has become well known in the US for its lethal effects on American troops who served in the war 1965-75 - and on their offspring. In addition to being a highly effective at killing plants, it has turned out to have a number of alarming health effects that have made it into a very controversial subject. However, the U.S. government is only known to have paid compensation to three of these veterans, including a former soldier who was poisoned while handling thousands of barrels of Agent Orange at Naha Port between 1965 and 1967. South Vietnam was the main suffering region. Starting in 1968, herbicides to be shipped to Vietnam were stored at the Seabees base in Gulfport, MS. During Hurricane Camille in 1969, 1,400 barrels of Agent Orange and Agent Blue were blown into the water; up to 240 barrels were never recovered. To do so would set an unwelcome precedent: Despite official denials, the U.S. and its allies, including Israel, have been accused of using chemical weapons in conflicts in Gaza, Iraq and Syria. Numerous domestic and foreign-based associations have been founded to promote relief acts for the Agent Orange aftermath in Vietnam. In 1969, when he was the National Security Advisor, the Cambodian government filed a claim for over $12 million in damages caused by night-time spraying of Agent Orange in Kompong Cham Province. (Though estimates vary, the government of Vietnam says that 4 million were exposed to the chemicals, 3 million of whom now suffer from health consequences.) The past has gone, but its traces are still present in Vietnam today. These findings are important because they describe a previously unrecognized source of exposure to dioxin that has health significance to those who engaged in the transport work using these aircraft, according to Dr. Stellman and Peter A. Lurker, PhD, PE, CIH, an environmental engineer with many years of experience evaluating environmental exposures in the Air Force. Source: Vietnam Veterans Association. In human bodies the half-life is 1120 years. Pacifica Graduate Institute is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC), 985 Atlantic Avenue, Suite 100, Alameda, CA 94501, 510.748.9001, and is approved by the State of California Board of Private Postsecondary Education (BPPE) and the U. S. Department of Education. This operations was called the Operation Ranch Hand. Birth defects, disabilities, and irreversable environmental damage are all results of the ten-year aerial bombardment. During this period, the island was a major staging point for the U.S. war in Vietnamwhere the United States sprayed millions of liters of Agent Orange, poisoning tens of thousands of its own troops and approximately 3 million Vietnamese people. Waiting for compensation and justice, organizations such as catholic religious group and VAVA constantly organizing charity events and gives help and rehabilitation to affected people. Dioxin has been linked to the cultivation of several dire physical conditions, most notably birth defects, different types of cancer, heart disease, and numerous brain malfunctions. Only in the last two decades has the United States finally acknowledged and taken responsibility for the legacy of Agent Orange in Vietnam, committing hundreds of millions of dollars to aiding the victims and cleaning up the worst-contaminated hot spots there. Lambert Campus
Monsanto, once a major manufacturer of Agent Orange, denies that the herbicide mix has long-lasting health impacts. U.S. soldiers, unaware of the dangers, sometimes showered in the empty 55-gallon drums, used them to store food and repurposed them as barbecue pits. However, dioxin buried or leached under the surface or deep in the sediment of rivers and other bodies of water can have a half-life of more than 100 years". The name was given because of the color of the orange-striped barrels in which it was shipped. It is believed that Agent Orange is still affecting the health of Vietnamese people. People who come into contact with Agent Orange, depending on the length, intensity, and timing of their exposure, may suffer from skin diseases or congenital deformations. It is a mixture of two common herbicides (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T ) that were used separately in the United States since the late 1940s. If youre interested in Vietnam History and planning a visit to our country, you might not want to miss out on this museum in your itinerary - Ho Chi Minh City War Remnants Museum. Learn more at erinblakemore.com. US soldiers in the barren landscape of Phu Loc, South Vietnam. Long-Term Fate of Agent Orange and Dioxin TCDD Contaminated Soils and Sediments in Vietnam Hotspots. First, building effective systems to monitor dioxin contamination, preventing the birth of new pollutants. Dioxin (Agent Orange) on the Carriers. Agent Orange was the most potent and actually had 4 different variants - Agent Orange, Agent Orange II, Agent Orange III, Enhanced Agent Orange (or Super Orange). Two heroic women fight to hold the manufacturers accountable. Currently, veterans who sprayed or handled Agent Orange herbicide during the war, or who spent any time on the ground in Vietnam, are automatically eligible for care and compensation under federal Agent Orange legislation. ), Legacy of Agent Orange in Da Nang, Vietnam. forests") and crop-growing regions of South Vietnam.1 Agent Or-ange was shipped to Vietnam in 55-gallon drums circled by a stripe of orange paint for easy sorting from other herbicides Agents White, Blue, Purple, and so on. Open Journal of Soil Science , 2019; 09 (01): 1 DOI: 10.4236/ojss.2019.91001 Tags: Agent Orange . Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Exposure of Ground Troops Agent Orange was a mixture of plant-killing chemicals (herbicides) used by the United States military during the Vietnam War as a defoliant to remove tree cover, destroy crops, and clear vegetation around US bases. These herbicides were used to destroy food sources and eliminate foliage that concealed enemy troop movements. Erin Blakemore is an award-winning journalist who lives and works in Boulder, Colorado. Vietnamese people werent the only ones poisoned by Agent Orange. The Agent Orange catastrophe did not end with the Vietnam War. In the United States alone, a ProPublica analysis suggests, a child born to a veteran exposed to Agent Orange was a third more likely to be born with a birth defect. The destruction of Vietnamese forests, however, has proven irreversible. Specific impacts on children. U.S. Army Operations in Vietnam R.W. All but three of the aircraft were smelted down in 2009.The Air Force and Department of Veterans Affairs have previously denied benefits to these crew members. During the Vietnam War, the U.S. Air Force sprayed more than 80 million litres of Agent Orange and other herbicides contaminated with dioxin, a deadly compound that continues to poison the land, the rivers, the ocean and the people. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Agent Orange is one of the six types of Rainbow Herbicides, a group of chemicals meant to kills plants, trees, and crops. The Vietnamese with their inherently optimistic and laid-back nature certainly bear no grudges over the past. Among five million people exposed to AO/dioxin, over three million ones are still suffering from diseases and leaving birth defects on their children. (Vietnamese in the US raise funds for AO victims, 2011. The class action case was dismissed in 2005 by a district court in Brooklyn, New York. Founded in 2004 and now with over 350,000 members, VAVA has established its bountiful member groups across up to 61 out of 63 cities and provinces in Vietnam. Sept. 1, 2014 - PRLog -- When the United States began using Chemical Warfare in Vietnam, its stated goals were to defoliate jungle coverage to see the enemy and limit the enemy's food supply. The. Of this figure, nearly 11.45 million (equivalent to over 208,000 drums) was Agent Orange, discharged mostly between 1965 and 1970. Most concerning was the extremely high levels of dioxin in the soil, especially at the main bases like Bien Hoa, Da Nang, and Phu Cat. Second, finding better technology to eradicate all dioxin residues in Agent Orange hotspots in the past - Bien Hoa, Da Nang, Phu Cat airbases. During Operation Ranch Hand, the U.S. and South Vietnamese governments spent considerable time and effort making the claim that tactical herbicides were safe for humans and the environment. And while research in those areas is limited an extensive 2003 study was canceled in 2005 due to a reported lack of mutual understanding between the U.S. and the Vietnamese governments evidence suggests that the heavily polluted soil and water in these locations have yet to recover. The most heavily exposed locations among them Dong Nai, Binh Phuoc, Thua Thien Hue and Kontum were sprayed multiple times. - According with the Vietnam Red Cross the chemical has affected 3 million of Vietnamese, including at least 150,000 children. or click here to become a subscriber. Agent Orange was banned in 1971. However, both Tokyo and Washington have refused these requests. This story was co-authored by Hang Thai T.M., a research assistant at the Posts and Telecommunications Institute of Technology, in Hanoi. "Food is a weapon", said Kissinger. This is one of the greatest legacies of the countrys 20-year war, but is yet to be honestly confronted. From 1961 to 1972 the US military forces sprayed more than 19 million gallons of herbicides over 4.5 million acres of land in South Vietnam. Not true: Sixty-five percent of the United States rainbow of chemicals contained dioxinsknown carcinogens. Meanwhile, the U.S. government recently allocated more than US$13 billion to fund expanded Agent Orange-related health services in America. The timeframe covered by the recently discovered report suggests that the barrels were a part of Operation Red Hatthe militarys 1971 operation to remove its 12,000-ton store of chemical weapons (including mustard gas, VX, and sarin) from Okinawa in preparation for the islands reversion to Japanese control the following year. The issue was re-ignited after the Sunday News quoted Government minister and New Plymouth MP Harry Duynhoven saying he had information the ingredients of Agent Orange were shipped from. The legacy of the defoliant will outlast its immediate victims, said Kaderlik. They were also effective. Despite the difficulty of establishing conclusive proof that their claims were valid, in 1979 U.S. veterans brought a class-action lawsuit against seven herbicide makers that produced Agent Orange for the U.S. military. - "Poynter" fonts provided by fontsempire.com. The operation lasted with incredible intensity for 9 consecutive years from 1962 to 1971. World Health Organization has listed dioxin as a cancer-causing substance, capable of impairing internal organs, the immune system, and the nervous system. While U.S. veterans have been compensated for their exposure to the herbicide mix since they filed a lawsuit in 1979, Vietnamese peoples efforts to secure similar compensation in a 2004 lawsuit was rejected by a U.S. court. Some of these vulnerable areas also happen to be very poor and, these days, home to a large number of Agent Orange victims. Efforts of the US governments in accepting its responsibility have remained slow and minimal. No matter what legacy the war left, life is moving on in this young and dynamic country. Please note that neither campus is open at this time.Thank you for your continued understanding and support. We use cookies for statistical purposes and to improve our services. That is insulting to the credibility and integrity of the men and women who served honorably, giving up years of our young lives to protect our great country of the United States of America and the island of Okinawa, says Sipalas letter. But then the children were born. The Participatory Action Research approach allowed Agent Orange Victims (AOVs) and community members in Da Nang to tell their stories about how Agent Orange and dioxin have affected their lives, psychology, families, and communities. Nearly 50 percent of the countrys mangroves, which protect shorelines from typhoons and tsunamis, were destroyed. Out of the 28 bases where Ranch Hand stored defoliants and loaded them onto airplanes, the main ones were Bien Hoa Air Base for operations in Mekong Delta (Bien Hoa, a populous city in southern Vietnam) and Da Nang Air Base for central coast and the Ho Chi Minh Trail regions (an important artery for Vietnamese military in the war). Toxic byproducts of Agent Orange are polluting the environment in Vietnam, including its food supply, 50 years later. Agent Orange is a mixture of herbicides used during the Vietnam War by the U.S. military to defoliate forests and clear other vegetation. [1] Possibly the only one that could be considered a victory for the. 2023 A&E Television Networks, LLC. However, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) has recently urged Veterans Affairs in the U.S. to take a closer look at the consequences of the deadly toxin not just on . Agent Orange is dangerous because it contains 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, otherwise known as TCDD. From 2005 to 2015, more than 200,000 Vietnamese victims suffering from 17 diseases linked to cancers, diabetes and birth defects were eligible for limited compensation, via a government program. Promising projects are underway, modeling on four major targets penned by the Vietnamese government. One prominent comic strip featured a character named Brother Nam who explained that The only effect of defoliant is to kill trees and force leaves to whither, and normally does not cause harm to people, livestock, land, or the drinking water of our compatriots.. Dioxin can have devastating, lethal effects on human health, and on top of that, it is hereditary. From 1961 to 1971, the U.S. Armys tactical herbicides program focused on tropical forests in central and south Vietnam. Do you consider this an environmental justice success? Agent Orange Working Group based in Hanoi, Vietnam and Vietnamese Entrepreneurs Association in France are prime examples for the great NGOs that are working towards resolving dioxin legacy in Vietnam. In an attempt to starve out Communist insurgents, British troops sprayed the lush forests with a substance similar to what became Agent Orange. Thanks to the associations proactivity, countless dioxin victims in Vietnam have received precious gifts that go beyond material values. As a result of herbicide spraying, watershed forests of over 28 major rivers suffered serious damage, according to Vietnam Environment Administration Magazine; their flood-preventing capability has dwindled considerably; numerous animal and plant species have gone extinct. Today, a primary chemical of the toxic defoliant causes deformed births and deadly cancers. The sole target of Operation Ranch Hand was Vietnamese guerrillas (troops that hide well to make sudden attacks on the enemy). As a result of herbicide spraying, watershed forests of over 28 major rivers suffered serious damage, according to, Vietnam Environment Administration Magazine, After just one spray mission, over 10 to 20% of the forest canopy (taking up 40% to 60% of forest biomass) went dead (cited from, What Have Been Done To Alleviate Agent Orange Aftermaths In Vietnam, Supports from the Vietnamese and US Governments, The largest organization for dioxin victims in Vietnam is the, Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (VAVA), Over the past decade, Vietnam and the U.S. governments have discussed and put into practice with remarkable success several short-term, and long-term operation plans to address the legacy of dioxin in Vietnam. Dioxin can have devastating, lethal effects on human health, and on top of that, it is hereditary.World Health Organization has listed dioxin as a cancer-causing substance, capable of impairing internal organs, the immune system, and the nervous system.Whats more dreadful is that dioxin can permeate into the soil and groundwater of Vietnam, and dig its way into plants and animals, which later can be consumed by people and accumulated in their body tissues without their knowledge. It is unlikely that the U.S. will admit liability for the horrors Agent Orange unleashed in Vietnam. During the past year and a half, dozens of U.S. veterans have spoken out about the use, storage, and disposal of Agent Orange on Okinawa during the 1960s and 70s. Twice a week we compile our most fascinating features and deliver them straight to you. Revealed: How Agent Orange Was Stored at the U.S. Military Base on Okinawa. Santa Barbara, CA 93108, Community, Liberation, Indigenous, and Eco-Psychologies (M.A./Ph.D. Chapter 1 discusses the researcher's relationship with the topic and outlines the research procedures. The wry sarcasm of the phrase sums up the irony of the mission. TCDD is a byproduct of herbicide production and is toxic even in small amounts. Some 45 million liters of the poisoned spray was Agent Orange, which contains the toxic compound dioxin. Find more hotels to stay in Vietnam below: Ho Chi Minh Private Tours:Saigon Shore ExcursionsMotorbike City ToursSaigon Food Tours, i Tour Vietnam - Private Tours Ltd. Outside Vietnam +84 986188801Inside Vietnam 0986188801 (English)
[email protected]. As a result, nobody is officially accountable for the suffering of Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange. While Agent Orange may be the most well-known chemical used during the Vietnam War, it wasnt the only one. NGO activist campaign for Vietnamese dioxin victims in France. -The use of the agent orange by the US Army in Vietnam was inspired in "The Malayan Emergency" when the British used herbicides and defoliants as an anti-guerrilla operation against the Malayan National Liberation Army (Malasia) between 1948-1960. Jason von Meding receives funding from Save the Children and the Australian government for disaster related research in Vietnam. And while research in those areas is limited an extensive 2003 study was canceled in 2005 due to a reported lack of mutual understanding between the U.S. and the Vietnamese governments evidence suggests that the heavily polluted soil and water in these locations have yet to recover. Right now we have two governmentsJapan and the U.S.who were actively working together for many decades to lie to their citizens, he said. Aircraft occupants would have been exposed to airborne dioxin-contaminated dust as well as come into direct skin contact, and our models show that the level of exposure is likely to have exceeded several available exposure guidelines., Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New evidence shows personnel exposed to meaningful levels of Dioxin, contrary to current position of Air Force and VA, People Born After WW II More Likely to Binge Drink, PTSD and Depression in Survivors a Decade After 9/11, New York Citys Open Streets Program During COVID Has Unintended Consequences on Noise Complaints, BBC Documentarians Come to Columbia Mailman, Air Pollution Speeds Bone Loss from Osteoporosis: Large Study. The destruction of Vietnamese forests, however, has proven irreversible. No matter how hard it is, Vietnam is bound to pull it off. Moreabout usor visit home page, Check out the necessary information for traveling to Vietnam, Airport Arrival Tips at Tan Son Nhat International Airport (Ho Chi Minh), Airport Arrival Tips at Noi Bai International Airport (Hanoi). A Government Minister says that New Zealand supplied Agent Orange chemicals to the United States military during the Vietnam War. Between the B-52 strikes and the Agent Orange, that lovely lush jungle around Khe Sanh was turned brown., Year-old conjoined twins being cared for at Hanois Viet-Duc hospital, a center for treating deformed children and others who may have been affected by exposure to the defoliant Agent Orange. The Geneva Protocol, developed after World War I to prohibit the use of chemical and biological weapons in war, would seem to forbid the use of these chemicals. At the moment, the government provides help to U.S. veterans who were exposed to military herbicides in Vietnam, Thailand, and along the demilitarized zone in Korea. Agent Orange has long been known as the toxic substance used with too much abandon and not enough care by the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War. It launched a public relations campaign included educational programs showing civilians happily applying herbicides to their skin and passing through defoliated areas without concern. We have a strong desire to do the right thing for all of the U.S. veterans who were exposed to herbicides/Dioxin on Okinawa as well as for Okinawa, states the letter, which was organized by former Air Force sergeant Joe Sipala. Separately, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs awarded compensation to about 1,800 veterans. Since 1945, the small Japanese island of Okinawa has been unwilling host to a massive U.S. military presence and a storehouse for a witches brew of dangerous munitions and chemicals, including nerve gas, mustard gas, and nuclear missiles. Chapter 5 discusses how Agent Orange harms human reproductive functions, and the psychological transformation and social breakthrough that occurred as fathers took responsibility for the disabilities of their children. In November 1961, with the authorization of President Kennedy, the U.S. Air Force officially launched Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for its aggressive defoliation program in the Vietnam War. These include Agent White, Agent Blue, Agent Pink, and Agent Green, among others. By 1971, around 12% of its total area suffered from Rainbow Herbicides spraying; millions of hectares of forests (especially mangrove forests) and agricultural land were annihilated due to one-off or repetitive spray missions. The disclosure led to immediate claims that New Zealand was in breach of the Geneva Convention and could face a flood of lawsuits from veterans and Vietnamese. No such plan is in store in Vietnam. All Rights Reserved. They compared estimates with available guidelines and standards and discuss the implications with respect to current Air Force and VA policies.These models suggest that the potential for dioxin exposure to personnel working in the aircraft post-Vietnam is greater than previously believed and that inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption were likely to have occurred during post-Vietnam use of the aircraft by aircrew and maintenance staff. The Effect on Soldiers. Stay updated with the latest news of the COVID-19 situation in Vietnam and information for traveling to Vietnam. Agent Orange, mixture of herbicides that U.S. military forces sprayed in Vietnam from 1962 to 1971 during the Vietnam War for the dual purpose of defoliating forest areas that might conceal Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces and destroying crops that might feed the enemy. ), Integrative Therapy & Healing Practices (Ph.D.), Jungian & Archetypal Studies (M.A./Ph.D. In total, since the US troops sprayed AO/dioxin in Vietnam for the first time, over three million hectares of forests and rice fields and 26,000 villages have been infected with this toxicant. Controversial then and now, its still not clear whether Operation Ranch Hand, a form of chemical warfare, was even permitted under international law. Worth noting is the fact that the intensity of spraying herbicides in Vietnam at that time was up to 50 times the normal amount for agricultural use. Nearly 3 million service members served in Vietnam and most returned home. Meanwhile, the children of veterans and Vietnamese people exposed to the chemicals were born with serious birth defects and illnesses. According to these accounts, hundreds of barrels of Agent Orange were shipped to Panama at the height of the Vietnam War, then sprayed on jungle areas to simulate the battlefield conditions. By estimation, Ranch Hand sprayed roughly 20 million gallons (75.7 million liters) of Rainbow herbicides, containing nearly 400 kilograms of dioxin on Vietnam. These accounts have caused alarm in Okinawa, where local residents have been urging the authorities to conduct environmental tests within the bases where U.S. veterans allege Agent Orange was stored. John Olin, the Florida-based researcher who discovered the 2003 army report, says he will keep investigating the militarys use of Agent Orange on Okinawa. Read more here. A paymaster in the 716th military police battalion, his job was to travel the country in a small . Today, Agent Orange has become a contentious legal and political issue, both within Vietnam and internationally. A young boy, who was born without eyes, at the Tu Du Hospital in Ho Chi Minh City, home to dozens of children who suffer from severe mental and physical disabilities as results from their parents coming in contact with Agent Orange. Such color-coding was meant as a convenient substitution for the more complicated chemical names and stemmed from the color of the 55-gallon drums that contained the respective herbicides. The U.S. had a rainbow of chemicals at their disposal. But, in 2005 the judge dismissed the lawsuit ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs claims. Because the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) was responsible for handling, transport, and storage of Agent Orange from the time it was delivered to Vietnam until loading onto Operation Ranch Hand aircraft, Agent Orange exposures of Allied troops during these procedures may have been negligible. Its abundantly clear now that this is false. used to make that statementincluding the filing of multiple Freedom of Information Act requestshave been hampered by U.S. authorities, and the Pentagon has refused to help former service members who claim they were exposed to toxic defoliants during the operation. : The use of Agent Orange ended in the 1970s, it is no longer in use. Even Ken Burns and Lynn Novick seem to gloss over this contentious issue, both in their supposedly exhaustive Vietnam War documentary series and in subsequent interviews about the horrors of Vietnam. The use of Rainbow Herbicides was adopted by United States military during the, Agent Orange and Herbicides Spraying Missions in Vietnam War, In November 1961, with the authorization of President Kennedy, the U.S. Air Force officially launched, By estimation, Ranch Hand sprayed roughly 20 million gallons (75.7 million liters) of Rainbow herbicides, containing nearly, Out of the 28 bases where Ranch Hand stored defoliants and loaded them onto airplanes, the main ones were Bien Hoa Air Base for operations in, Why Agent Orange and Herbicides were used in the Vietnam War, Agent Orange and Herbicides Immediate Efficacy in the Vietnam War, 20,000 towns and up to 4.8 million people. Sipala, who believes he was exposed to Agent Orange on the island in 1970, and the nine other veterans have offered to travel to Washington to testify on the issue. 801 Ladera Lane,
Unlike the effects of another chemical weapon used in Vietnam namely napalm, which caused painful death by burns or asphyxiation Agent Orange exposure did not affect its victims immediately. Using a variety of defoliants, the U.S. military also intentionally targeted cultivated land, destroying crops and disrupting rice production and distribution by the largely communist National Liberation Front, a party devoted to reunification of North and South Vietnam. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. More than 10 years of U.S. chemical warfare in Vietnam exposed an estimated 2.1 to 4.8 million Vietnamese people to Agent Orange.
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